Late 19th‑century imperialism was driven mainly by industrial capitalism’s hunger for raw materials and markets, along with rivalries, racism, missionary zeal, and population pressures in Europe. These motives blended together as European powers (and later the United States and Japan) raced to control territories in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific.

What “imperialism” meant

  • Imperialism is the policy of a powerful state extending control over other regions through conquest, political domination, or economic influence.
  • The dominating state was often called the metropolis , and the controlled regions were its colonies or protectorates.

Core economic causes

  • Industrialization created a huge demand for cheap raw materials like rubber, cotton, minerals, and foodstuffs, which colonies could supply.
  • Factories also needed new markets to sell manufactured goods, and colonies provided captive markets with few or no tariffs.
  • Colonies became places to invest surplus capital in railways, ports, and mines, promising high returns to investors back in Europe.

Demographic and social pressures

  • Europe’s population surged in the 19th century, raising fears of overcrowding and unemployment.
  • Millions of Europeans migrated to colonies, seeking land, work, or escape from social unrest, which helped relieve pressure in the home countries.

Ideological, religious, and racist motives

  • Many Europeans believed in their own racial and cultural superiority, embracing ethnocentric and openly racist ideologies.
  • Ideas like the “civilizing mission” and the “white man’s burden” framed imperialism as a duty to “modernize” or “civilize” supposedly backward peoples.
  • Christian missionary movements wanted to spread Christianity and Western values, and their activities often intertwined with imperial expansion.

Political rivalry and prestige

  • Great powers like Britain, France, Germany, and later others saw colonies as symbols of national greatness and prestige.
  • Competition in the “Scramble for Africa” and in Asia intensified rivalries, as each power raced to grab territory before its rivals could.
  • This imperial competition fed tensions that contributed to the hostile atmosphere leading up to the First World War.

TL;DR: The causes of late 19th‑century imperialism were a mix of economic needs from industrial capitalism, demographic pressures, nationalist rivalries, and powerful ideological beliefs in racial superiority, religion, and “civilizing” missions.

Information gathered from public forums or data available on the internet and portrayed here.